从上述引自文本的几个事件可以看出，曹操不仅是个忠实的汉朝皇帝支持者，还是个真正的保皇者。他虽身份低微，“年二十，举孝廉，为郎，除洛阳北部尉”，但他“有权谋，多机变”，胆大勇敢，有远见。他是我国历史上杰出的战略家。例如，“操见昭言语投机，便问以朝廷大事。昭曰：‘明公兴义兵以除暴乱，入朝辅佐天子，此五霸之功也。但诸将人殊意异，未必服从；今若留此，恐有不便。惟移驾幸许都为上策。然朝廷播越，新还京师，远近仰望，以冀一朝之安；今复徙驾，不厌众心。——夫行非常之事，乃有非常之功：

愿将军决计之。’操执昭手而笑曰：‘此吾之本志也。’……操奏曰：‘东都荒废久矣，不可修葺；更兼转运粮食艰辛。许都地近鲁阳，城郭宫室，钱粮民物，足可备用。臣敢请驾幸许都，惟陛下从之。’帝不敢不从；群臣皆惧操势，亦莫敢有异议。遂择日起驾。操引军护行，百官皆从。”从此，曹操“挟天子以令诸侯”，势力大增。

fromheevensquoedabovefromheexwecanseecaocaoisnoonlyaloyalsupporerofhehanemperorbualsoarealloyalisalhoughcaocao’sposiionisveryhumble—“aweny，caoreceivedhisdisric’srecommendaionforfilialdevoionandpersonalinegriy，andhisledohisiniialappoinmenohepaceer，hewasgivencommandofsecuriyinhenorhernhalfofhedisricwherehecapial，luoyang，waslocaed”，heis“amanwihingeniousideasforanysiuaion，aregursorehouseofschemesandmachinaions”，boldandbrave，veryinsighfulheisanousandingsraegisinchinesehisory

forinsance，“caocaoadmiredheapnessofdongzhao’srepliesandproceededoaskhimabouhecondiionofheroyalhouse‘mylord，’heanswered，‘heroyalarmyyoucommandhassavedhecourfromchaosandrescuedhesonofheavenforhisyourankwihhefiveproecorsofaniquiy，whosafeguardedhesovereignsofhezhuodynasyinhepreseninsance，however，wehavemanygeneralswihmanyambiions；heymaynoalwaysobeyyouhereforeimighbemoreadvanageousomoveheemperorfromluoyangoxuchangonheoherhand，hecourisnewlyinsalledhereinheformercapialaferaperiodofshulingabou，andmennearandfaryearnforsabiliyanohermovewillbewidelyresenedsillandall，exraordinaryacswinexraordinarymerihechoiceisyours’caocaoookdongzhao’shandandsmiled‘ireallywanomovehecour，’hesaidhenexday，caocaopeiionedheemperor，‘luoyangisruinedandca

oberesoredhegrainshoragehascausedseverehardship

xuchang，closeoluyang’sgrain，haswalls，buildings，riches，andresourcesmorehansufficienforourneedsiproposeremovinghereifiisaccepableoyourmajesy’heemperorcouldonlyagree，fornoneofhisofficialsdaredopposecaocaoonachosendaycaoledheimperialescor，andhecouriersfollowedheirsovereignohenewcapial”hisishow“caocaomovesheemperoroxuchang”(chaper14)fromhenoncaocaoconrolsheemperorandcommandshelords，andexendshispowerrapidly

曹操不仅是军事战略家而且是军事战术家。他在官渡之战大败袁绍，在我国古代战争史上树立了以少胜多、以弱胜强的光辉榜样。正是“势弱只因多算胜，兵强却为寡谋亡。”（第三十回）他乘胜追击，吞并了冀州、青州、幽州和并州。采用了郭嘉的意见，曹操计定了辽东。从而平定了北方。（第三十一至三十三回）

caocaoisnoonlyamiliarysraegisbualsoamiliaryacicianhehasdefeaedyuanshao’sarmyahebaleofguanduandseashiningexampleofdefeainganumericallysuperiorandpowerfulenemywihasmallandweakforceinhemiliaryhisoryofancienchina“insead：heweakerprevailedbycu

ingcalcuion；hesrongerfailedforwanofsraegy”(chaper30)hehasriumphanlypursuedyuan’sroopsinafavourablesiuaionanddevouredjizhou，qingzhou，youzhouandbingzhouhavingadopedguojia’ssuggesion，caocaohassecuredliaodongconsequenly，henorhissecured(chaper31—chaper33)

曹操也是个着名的政治家。他领了圣旨破贼，“不过百余日，招安到降兵三十余万、男女百余万口。操择精锐者，组成他的青州军，其余尽令归农。……操在兖州，招贤纳士。……自是曹操部下文有谋臣，武有猛将，威镇山东。”（第十回）曹操大败袁氏之后，“乃下令曰：‘河北居民遭兵革之难，尽免今年租赋。’一面写表申朝；操自领冀州牧。……乃令人遍访冀州贤士。”（第三十三回）“操将所得袁绍之兵，共五六十万，班师回许都。……复聚众谋士商议，欲南征刘表。荀罥曰：‘大军方北征而回，未可复动。且待半年，养精蓄锐，刘表、孙权可一鼓而下也。’操从之，遂分兵屯田，以候调用。”（第三十四回）曹操的“屯田制”产生了深远的影响，至今仍有影响。

caocaoisalsoanoedsaesmanhehasaccepedhecommissionosuppresspeasanuprisingsledbyheyellowscarves“inonehundreddayscaocaohadinducedhesurrenderofoverhreehundredhousandroopsandonemillionnoncombaanshepickedhefinesofheyellowscarvesroopsandorganizedheminohisqingzhouarmyheremainderhesenbackoheirfarmsbackinyanzhou，caocaosummonedworhyandcapablemenobuildhisadminisraionhuscaocao，aidedbywisecounselorsandfiercefighers，madehispresigefeleasofhepass”(chaper10)afercaocaodefeaedheyuan’s，“heforgaveallaxesforhecurrenyearinareasaffecedbyhefighinghen，aferinformingemperorxian，heassumedheproecorshipofjizhouhimselfcaocaoorderedjizhouscouredformenofworhandalen(chaper33)“henwihyuanshao’scapuredforces，whichnumberedsomehalfamillion，caocaowihdrewohecapialaxuchangonceagaincaocaoassembledhiscouncilodiscussasouherncampaignagainsliubiaoxunyouwasopposed‘ourmainforce，’heargued，‘isnoyereadyformobilizaionaferhenorherncampaignsifwewaihalfayearorecoveroursrenghandnourishourmele，liubiaoandsunquanoowillfallahefirsrollofourdrums’caocaoaccepedhisadviceandassignedhesoldiersoseleandrecimwasendunilhenexcalloarms”(chaper34)caocao’ssysemof“havinggarrisonroopsorpeasansopenupwasendandgrowfoodgrain”hasexercisedfarreachinginfluence，evenuponow，sillhavinginfluence

曹操是三国时期魏国的奠基人。与任何创建者一样，曹操有雄才大略、多谋善断、智勇双全、知人善任。因此，他成功地统一了中原和北方，为三国的统一打下了基础。他慷慨大方地对待和放行关羽，不仅表现了他尊重人才，而且表明他心胸开阔、宽宏大度。他在官渡之战大败袁绍军队以后，“于图书中检出书信一束，皆许都及军中诸人与绍暗通之书。左右曰：‘可逐一点对姓名，收而杀之。’操曰：‘当绍之强，孤亦不能自保，况他人乎？’

遂命尽焚之，更不再问。”这不仅使那些内疚的人因此而感激他，而且保持了他自己队伍的和谐。（第三十回）这不也表明了他的宽宏大量和政治远见吗？他爱才如命，胜过亲子。例如，“又设祭祭典韦，操亲自哭而奠之，顾谓诸将曰：‘吾折长子、爱侄，俱无深痛；独号泣典韦也！’众皆感叹。”（第十六回）文本中有许多事例表明曹操具有一个成功的开创者所应有的良好品质。

caocaoishefounderofhesaeofweiinheperiodofhehreekingdomsjuslikeanyfounder，caocaoisresourcefulanddecisive，asaesmanofraregifsandboldsraegyhehasbohwisdomandcourageheknowshissubordinaesandmakesgooduseofhemhaiswhyhecansucceedinuniinghecenralpinswihhenorhernparofhecounry，oyhefoundaionforareuniedchinahisgenerousreamenandreleaseofguanyushowsnoonlyhisrespecforalenedpeoplebualsohismagnanimiyandbroadmindednessaferhehasdefeaedyuanshao’sarmyahebaleofguandu，“amongheofficialpapershefoundapackeofleerswrienbyhoseinhiscapialwhohadsecrelycommunicaedwihyuanshaosomeofhisadvisersurgedcaocaooroundupheunreliableelemensandkillhembucaocaoreplied，‘whenyuanshaowaspowerful，myownsafeysoodindoub—noospeakofohers’heorderedheleersburnedandhemaerdropped”hisnoonlymakesheguilyonesappreciaedhimforibualsopreservesharmonyinhisownranks(chaper30)doesn’ialsodispyhismagnanimiyandpoliicalinsigh？helovesalensabovehisownchildrenicanbesaidhaheclingsoalensfordearlifeforinsance，“henheperformedsacrificeforhisfallencomrade，dianwei，personallyleadinghemenaionsandpreseninghewineaheceremonyheurnedohiscommandersandsaid，‘ihavelosmyeldessonandmydearnephewbuhelossofdianweihursmos’heassemblywasdeeplymoved”(chaper16)herearemanyexamplesinheexshowinghacaocaohasgoodqualiiesasuccessfulfoundershouldhave

除具有上述刘备和孙权都有的良好素质外，曹操还有文学天赋，是个着名的文学家。例如，“宴长江曹操赋诗”，诗曰：“对酒当歌，人生几何：譬如朝露，去日苦多……山不厌高，水不厌深：周公吐哺，天下归心。”（第四十八回）“并州既定，操商议西击乌桓。”（第三十三回）当他返回时，路过碣石山，在那儿写了一组乐府诗，其中一首是《观沧海》。诗曰：“东临碣石，以观沧海。……秋风萧瑟，洪波涌起……。”伟大诗人毛泽东于1954年夏所作的《浪淘沙·北戴河》中所写的“往事越千年，魏武挥鞭，东临碣石有遗篇。萧瑟秋风今又是，换了人间。”就是指曹操在那儿写的诗。

besideshavinghegoodqualiiesbohliubeiandsunquanhave，asmenionedabove，caocaohasagifforlieraureaswellheisawellknownwrierforexample，“feasingonhegreariver，caocaosingsanode”ireads，“herebeforeus，wineandsong！formandoesnolivelonglikedaybreakdew，hisdaysareswiflygohemounainopnoheigheschews；heseaeschewsnodeepandhedukeofzhouspaouhismealanempire’srusokeep”(chaper48)“wihbingzhousecured，caocaobeganp

ingoaackhewuhuanohewes”(chaper33)whileonhiswayback，hepassedbyjieshimounain，andherehewroeafewpoems，oneofwhichiseniled“aviewofhegreasea”ireads，“icomeeaswardojieshioscanheendlesssea，hewindhowlsandsighs；hebillowybreakersleap，”inhesummerof1954，greapoemaozedongwroeapoemeniled“beidairiveroheuneofwavessifsand”inwhichhelines“wohousandyearsagojusonhisnd，heemperorweiwu，whipinhand，rodeeaswardojieshi，hispoemsforheauumnalsearemain；nowheauumnwindsighsagain，buheoldworldhaschangedisreign”arereferredocaocao’spoemswrienhere

为什么曹操被称为“三绝”中的奸绝？一方面，曹操确实是个为达到政治目的不择手段的人。例如，“管粮官任峻部下仓官王罥入禀操曰：‘兵多粮少，当如之何？’操曰：

‘可将小斛散之，权且救一时之急。’罥曰：‘兵士倘怨，如何？’操曰：‘吾自有策。’

罥依命，以小斛分散。操暗使人各寨探听，无不嗟怨，皆言丞相欺众。操密召王罥入曰：

‘吾欲向汝借一物，以压众心，汝必勿吝。’罥曰：‘丞相欲用何物？”操曰：欲借汝头以示众耳。’罥大惊曰：‘某实无罪！’操曰：‘吾亦知汝无罪，但不杀汝，军必变矣。汝死后，汝妻子吾自养之，汝勿虑也。’罥再欲言时，操早呼刀斧手推出门外，一刀斩讫，悬头高竿，出榜晓示曰：‘王罥故行小斛，盗窃官粮，谨按军法。’于是众怨始解。”（第十七回）又如“二人至庄前下马，入见伯奢。奢曰：‘我闻朝廷遍行文书，捉汝甚急，汝父已避陈留去了。汝如何得至此？’操告以前事，曰：‘若非陈县令，已粉骨碎身矣。’伯奢拜陈宫曰：‘小侄若非使君，曹氏灭门矣。使君宽怀安坐，今晚便可下榻草舍。’说罢，即起身入内。良久乃出，谓陈宫曰：‘老夫家无好酒，容往西村沽一樽相待。’……操与宫坐久，忽闻庄后有磨刀之声。操曰：‘吕伯奢非吾至亲，此去可疑，当窃听之。’二人潜步入草堂后，但闻人语曰：‘缚而杀之，何如？’操曰：‘是矣！今若不先下手，必遭擒获。’遂与宫拔剑直入，不问男女，皆杀之，一连杀死八口。搜至厨下，却见缚一猪欲杀。宫曰：‘孟德心多，误杀好人矣！’急出庄上马而行。行不到二里，只见伯奢驴鞍前鞒悬酒二瓶，手携果菜而来，叫曰：‘贤侄与使君何故便去？’操曰：‘被罪之人，不敢久住。’伯奢曰：

‘吾已分付家人宰一猪相款，贤侄、使君何憎一宿？速请转骑。’操不顾，策马便行。行不数步，忽拔剑复回，叫伯奢曰：‘此来者何人？’伯奢回头看时，操挥剑砍伯奢于驴下。宫大惊曰：‘适才误耳，今何为也？’操曰：‘伯奢到家，见杀死多人，安肯干休？若率众来追，必遭其祸矣。’宫曰：‘知而故杀，大不义也！’操曰：‘宁教我负天下人，休教天下人负我。’”（第四回）还有很多事例表明曹操不仅诡诈多疑，滥杀无辜，而且奸诈阴险，常常玩弄种种阴谋诡计。

whyisisaidhacaocaoisheincomparablemachiavellianof“hehreeincomparable”？onheonehand，caocaoisindeedamachiavellianheroforinsance，“duringheemergencygranaryofficerwanghou，whoservedunderrenjun，adminisraorofraions，peiionedcaocao：‘hereisoolileofeedsomanywhashallwedo？’‘disribueshorraions，’caocaocommandedhim，‘oideusover’‘andifheycompin？’askedwanghou‘ihaveprovidedforha，’caoassuredhimheofficergaveoureducedraionsasorderedmeanwhile，caocaosenhismenaroundohecampsfromhemhelearnedhasoldierswereaccusinghimofcheainghemcaocaohensummonedwanghouandsaid，‘youhavesomehingiwouldlikeoborrowoquiehesoldiersihopeyouwillnobegrudgei’‘whadoihave，’wanghouanswered，‘ofuseoyourexcellency？’‘yourhead，’caoreplied，‘oshowhemen’‘buihavecommiednofaul！’heofficercriedinfrigh‘iknowha，’caosaid‘imusac，orhearmywillrevoliwillseeaferyourfamilypersonally，sohavenoconcernonheiraccoun’beforewanghoucouldsaymore，heexecuionerswerealreadypushinghimouheycuoffhisheadandhungifromapolewihasignboardreading，‘wanghou；dulypunishedbymiliarywforpurposefullyassigningshorraionsandsealingfromhegranary’hismeasureimprovedheroops’morale”(chaper17)le’scieanoherinsance，“hewomenrodeohefarmhouse，whereheyfoundboshe，‘heysayhecourcircuedawarranforyourarres，’boshesaid‘heyappliedsomuchpressurehayourfaherlefhechenliuareahowdidyougehere？’caocaoreedherecenevensandconinued，‘ifnoforhemagisrae，iwouldhavebeenreducedomincemea’boshesaluedchengongandsaid，‘yourhonor，hecao’swouldhavebeenexerminaedbuforyouhereyoumayrexandsleepinhebackcoage’bosheroseandweninsideevenuallyhereurnedandsaidhewasouofwineandhadogoohenexvilgeobuysomehenhehoppedonhisdonkeyandwasoffcaocaoandchengongsaagoodwhilesuddenlybehindhefarmhouseheyheardhesoundofknivesbeingwheed‘youknow，bosheisnoaclosereive’caosaid，‘hereissomehingsuspiciousabouhisleavingle’slookinohis’hewomensolebehindhecoageandoverheardsomeonemumble，‘le’sie’mupan’kill’m’‘ihoughso，’caocaowhispered‘ifwedon’srikefirs，we’llbecaugh’caocaoandchengongeneredaonceandkilledeveryone，womenandmen，eighinall；onlyhendidheyseeherussedpigwaiingobesughered‘youwereoosuspicious，’chengongsaid‘we’vekilledgoodfolk’hewomenhurriedfromhefarm，bubeforeheyhadriddenhalfamileheymeheirhosonhisdonkeywihwojarsofwinesuspendedfromhepommelandfruiandvegeableshangingfromonehand‘dearnephewandhonorablesir，’hecried，‘whyareyouleavingsosuddenly？’‘markedmencan’remainanywhereforlong’answeredcaocao‘buioldmyfamilyosugherapigforyourdi

er，’boshesaidearnesly‘don’begrudgeushenigh，nephew，noryou，goodsirurnback，ipray’bucaospurredhishorseonhenheurnedanddashedback，hissworddrawn，callingoboshe，‘who’scomingoverhere？’asboshelookedawaycaocaocuhimdown，andhefellfromhisdonkeychengongwasasounded‘whahappenedahefarmwasamisake—buwhyhis？’‘hadhegoenhomeandseenhemhewouldneverhaveleiyhe’dhavebroughamobaferusandwewould’vebeendonefor’‘buyoumurderedhimknowinghewasi

ocen—agreawrong’chengongassered‘beerowrongheworldhanhaveiwrongme！’caocaoreored”(chaper4)herearemanyoherinsancesshowinghacaocaoisnoonlycrafyandsuspicious，indiscriminaelysughershei

ocenpeoplebualsodeceifulanddesigning，ofenresorsoallsorsofschemesandinrigues

另一方面，众所周知，在罗贯中写作《三国演义》之前，三国的故事已在社会上流传了一千多年。在如此漫长的岁月里，不同朝代的历史学家、官员、哲学家和作家对三国时期的人和事有不同的观点和说法是很自然的。晋朝历史学家陈寿（233—297），亲身经历并亲眼见证了三国时期的历史，他在280年晋朝重新统一了魏、蜀、吴三国后开始写作《三国志》——官方的朝代记录，客观公正地记录了三国的人和事，正式承认魏的合法性，因为陈寿写作《三国志》时是晋朝的臣下，晋朝的合法性（司马氏接受末代曹氏魏帝于公元265年退位）取决于魏继承汉朝的合法性。在陈寿死后约一百三十年，东晋和南朝宋的学者官员裴松之（372—451）奉宋文帝之命，为《三国志》作注。裴补充对《三国志》的注释有历史价值，一些注释尽管不一定具有真实性，却是轶事趣闻，有声有色。可以说裴松之是第一个给《三国志》附上了一些虚构材料的人。宋文帝认可并高度赞扬裴的注释，于公元429年把《三国志》与注释合并为《三国志注》，并将其变成了三国时期的官方历史。这些注释比原着长了三倍；注释所引自的着作在唐朝之后已遗失，注释的价值就显得尤为宝贵了。我们发现注释中有一条重要的资料来源——习凿齿的《汉晋春秋》，否定魏继承的合法性。《汉晋春秋》这个标题就把魏从历朝排序中排除了。习凿齿被认为是第一位公开看待蜀汉为汉朝的合法后嗣的历史学家。他的着作把蜀汉统治年份确定为汉朝延伸到晋朝的第一位统治者时代。

蜀汉的第二位君王刘备之子刘禅于263年向魏军投降，晋朝的开创君王司马炎于265年接受末代魏帝曹奂退位。“晋绕过干扰的魏而汉晋相承”。为什么习凿齿要利用蜀汉统治的称号来证实刘玄德的合法性呢？因为习凿齿生活在东晋时期。东晋就像蜀汉，只局限在南方的一部分，受到北方中心地带敌朝消灭的威胁，这就间接地证实了东晋的合法性。高儒说罗贯中把《三国演义》的历史事实建立在《三国志》的基础上，就是指的裴松之注释的版本。但罗贯中没照其历史组织法——列传，而是选择了按年代顺序叙事。北宋时期的历史学家司马光于1066—1084年间写作了一部包含1362年（前403—959）的中国连续史《资治通鉴》。其中关于汉末—三国时期部分，主要是依据《三国志》和《后汉书》，可以被认为是《三国演义》版式的原型，正如《三国志》被认为是其资料来源的源头一样。司马光的朝代合法性观点，正如陈寿的观点，是“北方的”，而不是“南方的”，承认魏的合法性，与其他北宋历史学家如苏东坡和欧阳修相同。为了建构正统朝代系列，司马光采用了两个标准：领地控制（功业之实）和直系血统（以自上相授，受者为正）。他明确地排除刘备合法性的主张：“昭烈之于汉，虽云中山靖王之后，而族属疏远，不能纪其世数名位……是非难辨……使得绍汉氏之遗统也。”然而，全套着作过长并庞大，结果各种压缩版本出现，最有影响力的是南宋哲学家朱熹的《通鉴纲目》。它不仅给了一个比司马光的着作更为浓缩的三国历史记述，还为该时期带来完全不同的观念。司马光的着作遵循常规，支持曹操的魏国声称继汉的合法性，而朱熹则在他的《纲目》中改变了日历记载，以便和蜀汉的记载一致并设计了纲目，其纲目措词含有拥刘反曹的鉴定。朱熹不接受司马光的统一领地的控制为合法性的标准，而变成了如孔孟思想的文化连续性和理想君臣的道德完善等其他标准来界定合法性。这种标准的改变很自然地与当时南宋和北方晋朝的敌对相关，同时正迎合了民间长期拥刘反曹的思想趋向；并且还为《三国演义》的建构打下了思想基础。《资治通鉴》为罗贯中“陈叙百年”的着作《三国志通俗演义》提供了一本综合性的编年叙事。可以说《三国演义》就是《通鉴纲目》的版。书名中的“演义”二字是从《资治通鉴》中“不断发展”而来的“演”，从朱熹“纲目”中的“信息，道德意义”中得来的“义”；的有些章回目录就是追随朱熹对《资治通鉴》的修订。例如第八十回标题“曹丕废帝篡炎刘汉王正位续大统”，详细叙述了220—221的事件，就是朱熹“纲目”“曹丕废献帝篡汉汉中王成都称帝”的改写。中，“魏—蜀”矛盾是主要的，“吴”作平衡；“魏”与“吴”间的矛盾是次要的，“蜀”与“吴”的矛盾也是次要的。在历史上，“魏”与“吴”间的矛盾是主要的，尽管“蜀”在“魏”与“吴”间起平衡作用，“蜀”是次要的因素。把“蜀”作为道德中枢是一个重要的虚构变化，这是回应孔孟思想的文化连续性。在总结各种三国合法性的争论时，清朝时期的《四库全书》提要、目录索引大百科，采取求实的态度，重新提醒传统中国学者，要看透朝代宣传的各种各样的巧言妙语。“从作者处境的观点……所有情况都需要根据所处的时代而不是单一不变的标准来评价。”既然罗贯中生活在元末明初并在年轻时参加过起义军，那么他表现出一种鲜明的思想倾向：赞美刘备，贬抑曹操，反映他“仁政”的理想，是完全可以理解的。如果罗贯中加入的起义军的首领正是朱元璋的话，那与《三国演义》的关系就在于朱元璋试图把他自己塑造成他骄傲地比作的汉朝开国皇帝刘邦那样榜样式的帝王。《三国演义》可看成是歌颂就像是朱元璋完成了刘玄德和孔明未完成的使命而他在中国恢复了汉朝一样的统治。因此，罗贯中，“有志图王者”，更坚定地接受拥刘反曹的观念，把他未实现的理想倾注在刘备和孔明——圣君和贤相的人物身上。好在罗贯中还没把曹操涂绘得特黑。

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